【多选题】How does crossing-over occur between the duplicated maternal and paternal chromosomes in each bivalent?
A.
In ually reproducing organisms, the pairing of the maternal and paternal chromosomes is accompanied by homologous recombination, a process in which two identical or very similar nucleotide sequences exchange genetic information. A similar process takes place when homologous chromosomes pair during the long prophase of meiosis I. In this case, the recombination occurs between the non-sister chromatids in each bivalent, rather than between the identical sister chromatids within each duplicated chromosome. In the process, the maternal and paternal homologs can physically swap homologous chromosomal segments, an called crossing-over.
B.
Crossing-over is a complex, multistep process that is facilitated by the formation of a synaptonemal complex. As the duplicated homologs pair, this elaborate protein complex helps to hold the bivalent together and align the homologs so that strand exchange can readily occur between the non-sister chromatids. Each of the chromatids in a duplicated homolog (that is, each of these very long DNA double helices) can form a crossover with either (or both) of the chromatids from the other chromosome in the bivalent.
C.
By the time meiotic prophase ends, the synaptonemal complex has disassembled, allowing the homologs to separate along most of their length. But each bivalent remains held together by at least one chiasma (plural chiasmata), a structure named after the Greek letter chi, χ, which is shaped like a cross. Each chiasma corresponds to a crossover between two non-sister chromatids. Most bivalents contain more than one chiasma, indicating that multiple crossovers occur between homologous chromosomes. In human oocytes—the cells that give rise to the egg—an average of two to three crossover s occur within each bivalent.
D.
Crossovers that take place during meiosis are a major source of genetic variation in ually reproducing species. By scrambling the genetic constitution of each of the chromosomes in the te, crossing-over helps to produce individuals with novel assortments of alleles. But crossingover also has a second important role in meiosis: it helps ensure that the maternal and paternal homologs will segregate from one another correctly at the first meiotic division.