A researcher wants to conduct a before/after study on 11 subjects to determine if a treatment results in any difference in scores. The null hypothesis is that the average difference is zero while the alternative hypothesis is that the average difference is not zero. Scores are obtained on the subjects both before and after the treatment. After subtracting the after scores from the before scores, the average difference is calculated to be –2.40 with a sample standard deviation of 1.21. Assume that the differences are normally distributed in the population. The observed t-value for this test is _______.