In the 13th and 14th centuries new inventions were made, such as the compass, paper, spectacles, gunpowder, and, in the 15th century, the printing press. Some of them were first invented in China and then spread to Europe. By far the most far-reaching was the invention of printing. In the Middle Ages, books were written and copied by hand. Copying was done mainly by monks and professional copyists. It was an arduous task to copy a whole book by hand. As a result, books were scarce and expensive. Many hand-written books (or manuscripts)were beautifully illuminated with pictures and other decorations hand-drawn and hand-colored. The primary purpose of illumination was not to clarify a text but to beautify it and call attention to the skill that had been lavished on its creation. Books were usually accumulated by monasteries, bishops, princes, and some well-to-do merchants. Since few people could read during the Middle Ages, there was small demand for books. However, by the 13th century the thrust of intellectual life had passed to the universities. More people could read and more books were privately owned. As the Middle Ages progressed, kings and rich men became patrons to the artists, who produced richly illustrated books. By the 15th century, still more people could read, creating a bigger demand for books. The desire for learning gave rise to a thirst for books that the copyists alone could not satisfy. A less laborious method of book production had to be found. In about 1450, Johann Gutenberg, a German, revolutionized printing by inventing the movable type. He produced the first printed book in the West — the Gutenberg Bible, and by the end of the 15th century there were 97 editions of the Bible in Europe. The invention of printing was one of the greatest achievements of men. It brought books and knowledge within reach of many and ushered the West from the dark Middle Ages into the Renaissance. In the Middle Ages, the copying work of books was mainly done by______.