Of the 300 million human sperm ejaculated during sexual intercourse, only about 200 reach the site of fertilization in the oviduct. Sperm are attracted to an ovulated egg by chemical signals released by both the egg and the supporting cells that surround it. Once a sperm finds the egg, it must migrate through a protective layer of cells and then bind to, and tunnel through, the egg coat, called the zona pellucida.

Finally, the sperm must bind to and fuse with the underlying egg plasma membrane. Although fertilization normally occurs by this process of sperm–egg fusion, it can also be achieved artificially by injecting the sperm directly into the egg cytoplasm; this is often done in infertility clinics when there is a problem with natural sperm–egg fusion.

Although many sperm may bind to an egg, only one normally fuses with the egg plasma membrane and introduces its DNA into the egg cytoplasm. The control of this step is especially important because it ensures that the fertilized egg—also called a zygote—will contain two, and only two, sets of chromosomes. Several mechanisms prevent multiple sperm from entering an egg. In one mechanism, the first successful sperm triggers the release of a wave of Ca 2+ ions in the egg cytoplasm. This flood of Ca 2+ in turn triggers the secretion of enzymes that cause a “hardening” of the zona pellucida, which prevents “runner up” sperm from penetrating the egg. The Ca 2+ wave also helps trigger the development of the egg. To watch a fertilization-induced calcium wave.

The process of fertilization is not complete, however, until the two haploid nuclei (called pronuclei) come together and combine their chromosomes into a single diploid nucleus. Soon after the pronuclei fuse, the diploid cell begins to divide, forming a ball of cells that—through repeated rounds of cell division and differentiation—will give rise to an embryo and, eventually, an adult organism. Fertilization marks the beginning of one of the most remarkable phenomena in all of biology—the process by which a single-celled zygote initiates the developmental program that directs the formation of a new individual.